A specimen is measured repeatedly under the same conditions. You want one summary per assigned unit. What is a suitable first step?

• Count each repeat as a new independently assigned unit
• Average suitable repeats within each assigned unit
• Delete unit identifiers before pooling all the repeats

Which practice is pseudoreplication?

• Treating dependent readings as independent units
• Repeating a study with new independently assigned units
• Recording repeated readings with their unit identifiers

Two separately prepared cell cultures share one donor. Separate culture-level treatment assignments do not make them independent donor-level replicates.

Treatments are assigned independently to patients, and each patient has repeated readings. Which analysis respects this design?

• Pool readings and count each as a separately assigned patient
• Keep only the patient with the greatest number of readings
• Account for patient units and dependence within each patient

Readings have positive correlation within assigned units. What can happen if a standard-error calculation treats every reading as independent?

• It can underestimate the uncertainty of the mean
• It can make n too small and overstate uncertainty
• It can increase the actual number of independent units

A plot shows 15 readings from five independently assigned animals. Before interpreting its error bars, what should you check?

• Whether there are enough readings for an independent-data formula
• What the bars represent and how animal grouping was handled
• Whether averaging readings creates more independent animals

Four classes are independently assigned teaching methods. Each class has 20 measured students. Which count describes the treatment assignments?

• 80 assignments, one for every student who was measured
• 20 assignments, matching the number of students per class
• 4 assignments, one for each independently assigned class

Accounting for within-unit dependence leaves the effect estimate unchanged but increases its standard error. The result is no longer significant. What follows?

• The estimated effect became smaller after the analysis changed
• Greater estimated uncertainty changed the significance decision
• The change in uncertainty indicates that more units were collected