Roman Republic and Empire

Long ago, Rome was not ruled by kings. The people said no to kings after one of them became cruel and unfair. Instead, Rome became a republic. In a republic, the people choose leaders, and they also vote on big decisions themselves. Each year the citizens picked two consuls. The consuls were like co-leaders. They ran the army and the city, but each one could say no to the other, so no single person grew too strong. There was also the Senate, a group of older, experienced men who gave advice and made big choices about money and law. Roman people were split into two main groups. Patricians were rich families with old, famous names, and they held most of the power at first. Plebeians were everyone else: mostly farmers, workers, and shopkeepers, though a few grew rich. For a long time plebeians had almost no say. They stuck together and went on strike, refusing to work or fight, until they won the right to elect their own protectors, called tribunes. Bit by bit, the republic let more people share in running Rome, and offering citizenship to people in new lands helped Rome grow into the mightiest power in the world.

Wars weakened Rome's republic as generals battled for control. Military victories gave Julius Caesar great power. Some senators feared he would become king and killed him. Further fighting followed. His adopted son Octavian eventually defeated the remaining rivals.

In 27 BCE, senators awarded Octavian the title Augustus. Historians usually date the Roman Empire's beginning to that year. Augustus avoided the name king. Rome still had consuls and a Senate, but Augustus held most of the power.

His reign began the Pax Romana, or Roman peace. He strengthened the army and built roads and grand buildings. Rome went more than forty years without a major civil war, although wars continued beyond Rome. Many welcomed him as Rome's rescuer. Others missed the republic, when citizens had more say.

The Roman Empire began in 27 BCE when Augustus became the one ruler of Rome. Even though emperors held all the real power, they kept the words and look of the old republic. They still talked about the Senate and the consuls, because it helped people accept their rule. Emperors also built bigger and more amazing buildings than anyone before. They raised huge temples, theaters, and arenas, and the city of Rome changed into a grand capital with more than a million people. The emperor commanded the army, made the big laws, and chose who would rule after him. Some emperors, like Augustus, ruled wisely and brought long stretches of peace. Others, like Nero, were cruel and unpopular. The empire that Augustus started would last for hundreds of years and stretch across Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.

Status affected people's power in ancient Rome. Under the empire, the emperor commanded troops, could block laws and appointed many officials.

Senators were wealthy political leaders. Some belonged to old patrician families; others came from plebeian families. Both patricians and plebeians could be senators. Patricians controlled most high offices early in the republic and excluded plebeians from them.

Plebeians included farmers, builders, bakers and traders. Some families became wealthy. They formed much of the citizen population and paid taxes in some periods. At first, they had less political influence. Their struggles brought more rights and offices, including tribunes who defended plebeian interests.

Freed people had been released from slavery but still faced limits on their rights. Enslaved people had the fewest rights. Conflicts between these groups help explain the republic's political changes.